Panopticisim and the Social Institution of Religion...

Religion can be described as a social institution built up around the idea of a supernatural being or beings, and the relation of human beings to them. In addition, religion provides individuals a belief to which they understand their existence as well network of emotional support during times of distress. Moreover, religious institutions provide individuals a proper perspective of life and establish values. Religion involves three major aspects: A conception of the nature and character of divinity (2) A set of principles concerning the duties and obligations between divinity and humanity. (3) A set of behavior patterns designed to conform to God’s will (Thorman, 154). The theme of panopticisim is to assert and maintain power by being†¦show more content†¦According to Protestant theology the bible is a holy scripture, being Gods own Word, written by men prepared and by His Spirit. It is to be believed, as Gods instruction, in all that it affirms, obeyed, as Gods comma nd, in all that it requires; embraced, as Gods pledge, in all that it promises. The ideology of the bible being solely verbally God-given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching. (Wisse 476) God is deemed perfect there are not flaws in his teachings. The bible sets principles that individuals must follow. The main laws in the bible are stated in the Ten Commandments: 1. Thou shalt have no other gods before me. 2. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. 3. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain 4. Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. 5. Honour thy mother and thy father 6. Thou shalt not kill. 7. Thou shalt not commit adultery. 8. Thou shalt not steal. 9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour. 10. Thou shalt not covet Furthermore, Christians do not commit sins based on their belief that God is always watching them. In addition, priests, nuns, and other members of the clergy that could be watching them at any moment. Moreover, Christians refrain from committing sin in fear that they will become not allowed to enter heaven, and sent to hell ifShow MoreRelatedWhat is a Social Order?2162 Words   |  9 PagesSocial Order A social order may be defined as the consequence of any set of moral norms that regulates the way in which persons pursue objectives. The set of norms does not specify the objectives the participants are to seek, nor the pattern formed by and through the coordination or integration of these ends, but merely the modes of seeking them. Traffic rules and the consequent traffic order provide an obvious example. Any social system or any game may be viewed quite properly as an instance

Ideologies and How They Impact Policy Making free essay sample

It extends into an assessment of the existing state of social and economic affairs, and a political strategy for shifting from one to another (Eichbaum amp; Shaw, 2008). Social issues, and the way in which policies are created and explained, will be shaped by the values and ideas of those who have the most political influence on society at the time. These ideas are commonly grouped into political ideologies. Political ideologies are the groups of ideas and ethical values, based on the core behind, and the solution for, social and economic problems (Duncan, 2007). They are both normative and politically motivated. Political ideologies are normative in the sense that they hold values about human nature and how society should live their lives, and politically motivated in being supported by political interests (Duncan, 2007). Political parties base their actions and policy making on the ideology they have adopted. The two main ideologies shown through New Zealand policy are neo-liberalism, and social democracy. There is a political distinction drawn between these two ideologies, left and right-wing parties. The right-wing party National, implements their policies under a neo-liberal ideology. The more left-wing party Labour, implements their policy under a more social democratic group of ideas. Neo-liberalism promotes the value of a free market, individualism, and a minimal state. To neo-liberalists, a free market is best for economic growth and distributes wealth fairly. An individual is better off by means of their own efforts, and satisfying their own needs. This then develops the capability to trade with others, which is an important idea of the neo-liberal ideology (Belgrave, Cheyne, amp; O’Brien, 2008). By leaving individuals to their own needs doesn’t distribute wealth fairly in the end as not all individuals are the same. Individualism or freedom means that citizens care for their own needs, as they are the only ones who make the best decisions. The exercise of individual freedom in relation to private property is an important part of the neo-liberal ideology, and the state should do as much as possible to ensure this freedom is not restricted (Belgrave, Cheyne, amp; O’Brien, 2008). In a neo-liberal view, this freedom is often referred to as negative freedom, opposing the social democratic view of positive freedom. Neo-liberalists don’t see policy as distinct from economic policy. This is because under the ideology of a neo-liberal idea, if you get economic policies right then social policy should follow. Neo-liberalists also believe in having a minimal state. A state should only focus on the core actions such as policy making and the courts. The state has a responsibility to ensure that laws which are put in place to allow the market to operate more effectively are applied in a way that prescribes no discrimination (Braman, 2003). The overall aim of neo-liberalism is to reduce the size of government in economic and social life. Neo-liberalism has had the greatest impact on public policy in New Zealand over the past 20 years. An example of this ideology in policy making in New Zealand history would be The National party in the 1990’s. National significantly reduced the state’s role in the labour market, and introduced markets in public housing and education. A more recent example is the current National government and their benefits policy. In 2008 National focussed on getting beneficiaries into employment. National’s leader John Key announced that they were committing to a benefit policy that would act as a safety net, but encourage beneficiaries to go out and source other forms of income (Key, 2008). This is a neo-liberal idea in the sense of having minimal state intervention. The plan to put in place a tax system that encourages people to work hard and not rely on the welfare state, and the continuing of shrinking the size of government sees that the future intentions of the current National party is going to carry on down a neo-liberal road (Key, 2008). Social democracy is a political ideology which embraces both socialism and liberalism (Belgrave, Cheyne, amp; O’Brien, 2008). It is not a tightly sealed set of political values and beliefs, but a set of several. Social democracy contrasts with the ideology of neo-liberalism by identifying market failure rather than government intervention (Eichbaum amp; Shaw, 2008); this is why it stands for a balance between market and the state. Its main values lie more within the socialist belief, but it highlights a key liberal view on individualism and individual freedom (Eichbaum, 2006). Social democracy regulates certain areas of economic activity, and develops the operation of the welfare state. This reinforces the key idea behind social democracy of everyone being of equal opportunity (Duncan, 2007). The state has a role, and is used as an instrument of social change (Belgrave, Cheyne, amp; O’Brien, 2008), and this is the general view that social democrats have of the state. They acknowledge that inequality and capitalism exist, and this justifies the need of a welfare state. The welfare state is the key instrument for guaranteeing wellbeing. Social policy is concerned with particular areas of public goods, which are those that are supplied to citizens in need or dependent. Education, health, housing, and income support are examples of these (Belgrave, Cheyne, amp; O’Brien, 2008). Redistribution of wealth and opportunity is a desirable purpose, and the outcome of this policy should end in a more unified society (Belgrave, Cheyne, amp; O’Brien, 2008). Social democratic policies would not have lasted very long without an economic theory to explain them. Failure of the classic neo-liberal economic policy which was based on self-equilibrating markets, in the era of the Great Depression, allowed British economist John Maynard Keynes to then proposed the Keynesian theory. For an economy to reach a point of equilibrium – where demand equals supply, it needs to be helped along the way and will not accomplish this if left to its own devices (Belgrave, Cheyne, amp; O’Brien, 2008). Keynes suggested that to reach the right equilibrium governments need to put money into the economy when needed, which will result in growth and higher employment (Eichbaum amp; Shaw, 2008). Full employment was the objective of Keynesian economics and this was important to the welfare objectives of a social democratic state (Duncan, 2007). Higher employment then boosts demand so the cycle can then continue. Overall this showed that it was ok to provide welfare. Some benefits are universal, but this doesn’t mean we all would have to use it (Eichbaum amp; Shaw, 2008). This connects to the social democratic ideology of having an equal balance between the market and the state. In New Zealand, the Labour party’s ideology of social democracy influences the way they construct policies. Labour’s ideological backgrounds are visible in the basics set out in its constitution. The principals are underlining the facts that resources in New Zealand are there to benefit all equally, and in economic relation, there should be a fair distribution of wealth and opportunity (Eichbaum amp; Shaw, 2008). In the early years Labour introduced a series of measures which have become fundamentals of New Zealand society and culture. In 1935, for the first time, healthcare became affordable and accessible to all. The 40 hour week was also introduced and this benefited workers, as well as reducing unemployment (Belgrave, Cheyne, amp; O’Brien, 2008). This is a very social democratic value of equality and equal distribution. On more recent terms, the 5th Labour Government lead by Helen Clark still produced policies reflecting social democratic ideas. The party committed to supporting families as best they could, with funding going towards achieving the best education and health systems available (About Labour, 2008). Labour also drove towards supporting older New Zealanders and valuing the importance of Maori, Pasifika, Asian, and anyone else who called New Zealand home. These policies relate hugely to the idea of equality and fair distribution, which are fundamental values of social democracy. Labours adopted political ideology impacts the way they have made policy in the past, and still impacts their policy making today. These two political ideologies prove through New Zealand history and past political structure, that ideologies have a big impact on policy making. The policies implemented by National have been driven by the values and ideas of neo-liberalism. These policies focussed around reducing the size of government and therefore having a minimal state. Labours policies are drawn from the social democrat ideas. Social democracy is aimed at applying the values of equality, redistribution, and social responsibility (Eichbaum amp; Shaw, 2008). The Labour party focuses their policies around equalising wealth and opportunity, and supporting the range of citizens in this country equally. In conclusion, this shows how policy making is implemented through the ideologies.

Tony Liang 6th period Essays - Economy, Petroleum Politics

Tony Liang 6th period The World's Greatest Con As Americans, we take great pride for living in a democratic society, free of government tyranny. In fact, the United States values such ideologies to a point that we would take matters into our own hands when there are oppressive regimes commit crimes that us, westerners view as inhumane and unethical -- whether it's through military intervention or economic sanctions. America is the world's premier superpower, hence we feel there is a certain obligation that we should be the "police of the world" and enforce rules that we believe to be right. This is extremely ironic; for the United States has a long history of installing dictators in countries where there is economic or social-political interest. One of our closest allies, Saudi Arabia, is one of the few remaining monarchs with absolute power, but we turn a blind eye, even though we acknowledge that fact that many of the citizens there do not have the basic human rights such as freedom of speech and women not having the equal rights as men. The Saudi regime even committed genocide to Shia muslims, a minority groups. In current day society, we view such immense atrocities as a thing in the past, but it is still common dilemma humanity has yet to solve. Most people are unaware of this, not because we're ignorant, but because news corporations in the United States, which are owned by extremely rich and powerful individuals, and are often in shady cahoots with various governments that simply do not want us to know. The relationship between the America and Saudi Arabia is ver y straightforward. The US provides military assistance and helps Saudi Arabia become the dominate power in the Middle East through intentionally causing turmoil in the region; in return the Saudi's help the US straggle it's enemies by opposing sanctions and not selling oil to them. As a matter of fact, some serious under-the-table deals are going on right now. Oil prices have plunged nearly 50% since this June, to around 57 dollars per barrel. Many may believe this is due simple laws of economics in effect, where there is not enough demand and too much supply. But coincidentally, the United State's former Cold War enemy and current threat(at least that's what our government wants us to believe), Russia, is experiencing a free-fall of their currency to an all time low. It is a well known fact that oil and natural gas is the backbone and livelihood of the Russian economy. Another so-called threat is Iran, also having its economy directly tied with oil revenues, is also being targeted. Currently, there are some high profile talks on Russia's intervention in Ukraine and Iran's nuclear program. The big picture is extremely clear now. The US wants to attack its enemies where it hurts the most. What better way to do it than to cut off oil revenue from OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries). This is a political move is directly aimed to validating the US as the supreme power. You might be thinking, isn't the US a major exporter of oil? So why would it shoot itself in the foot? And how does being a "superpower" really benefit the US. The answer is simple. Money. To be specific, US currency. The US currency is the worlds default currency, hence lets say China wants to import some maple syrup from Canada. To complete this business deal, they would have to exchange their currency to dollars and the transaction proceeds. Thus giving the US dollar massive artificial value and demand. This is extremely beneficial for America. Not only does this allow us to buy cheap goods from developing countries, but it also establishes "trust" and "reliance" on the US dollar, hence many people think US currency is a "safe" investment. This makes our debt extremely cheap, somewhere close to 0, which in turn fuel our unsustainable standard of living. After the the US dollar rating dropped from AAA rating, our debt has actually gotten cheaper. Because Europe is on the verge o f financial breakdown, the Middle East is in great turmoil, and China's double digit growth figures is running out of steam. One Russian women

Medical Anthropology Paper-Tay Sachs Disease Essay Example

Medical Anthropology Paper Medical Anthropology Paper-Tay Sachs Disease Paper Medical Anthropology Paper-Tay Sachs Disease Paper A normal infant has the ability to develop healthy motor functions due to the synthesis of certain enzymes vital for clearing harmful materials that can interrupt the growth process. However, babies that inherit the gene coding for Tay-Sachs disease experience motor function disorders. Tay-Sachs disease is a rare genetic disorder inherited by individuals that causes the degradation of their central nervous system. This condition is not treatable. Moreover, it progresses continuously from infancy until early childhood, a point where the patient fails to survive. The disease occurs within a defined population, commonly found among eastern European Ashkenazi Jews. The said disorder results from genetic mutations whose effects are manifested from infancy and are highly fatal for affected babies. In addition, it is acquired through genetic inheritance and is detectable prior the childs birth (Lowden 575). The disease is due to a mutation at chromosome number 15 which results in a dysfunction of the lysosomal enzyme acid hydrolase. Deficiency of Beta Hexosaminidase A is characteristic among afflicted patients. This enzymatic absence can be attributed to the occurrence of a founder effect, which accounts for the unusually high frequency of an allele that is an identical copy carried by the individual who founded the population (Slatkin 282). Currently, there are neither treatments nor drugs that would cure Tay-Sachs disease. However, studies have shown that it is possible to prevent the manifestation of Tay-Sachs among potential patients. This leads to the interests of researchers in screening for the probability of passing this disease from heterozygous parents to offspring (Lowden 575). History The disease derived its name from a British ophthalmologist named Warren Tay (1843-1927) and an American neurologist named Bernard Sachs (1858-1944). Tay first provided the characteristic description of retinal cherry-red spot in the eyes while Sachs provided the earliest descriptions of the cellular modifications occurring among afflicted patients. It was also Sachs who first concluded that this disorder is acquired through inheritance from parental genes through studies conducted among numerous patients. His research revealed that this disease notably occurs among Ashkenazi Jews of Eastern European origin (www. ntsad. org). In the year 1900, Sachs collaborated with Dr. Isadore Strauss, who then served as Mount Sinais director of pathology. Their concerted work provided additional descriptions of Tay-Sachs patients, which included observations on the diseases neuropathology. By the middle part of the 1920s decade, Mount Sinai Hospital had finally established a laboratory for neuropathological studies headed by Dr. Joseph Globus. Through this program, scientists were able to identify that autonomic neurons in bowel mucosa are involved. This was used as a diagnostic test, as direct enzymatic assays were not yet discovered. These observations were highly used in determining Tay-Sachs cases and other associated genetic disorder â€Å"through the use of morphological studies of rectal biopsies† (Desnick and Kaback 18). Succeeding years relatively added few descriptions on the morphology of Tay-Sachs disease. But with the onset of the electron microscope during the 1960s, Terry and Korey were able to find numerous bodies bounded by membranes in the cytoplasm of neurons of patients with Tay-Sachs disease. The researchers used a formalin fixed brain specimen, where the tissues were poorly preserved. But the granular bodies that they detected were consistent with brain tissues that were not previously fixed in formalin but immediately placed in a frozen state. In 1963, Terry collaborated with a researcher named Weiss and their studies revealed that the disease is characterized by these granular bodies in the neuronal cytoplasm. Their research team discovered the nature of the lipids that accumulate within neurons, microglial cells, and pericytes. According to their biochemical findings, these deposits possess a ganglioside nature (Desnick and Kaback, 22). Also during the 1960s, an enzyme assay test was developed by Kaback in order to screen heterozygous individuals carrying the allele for Tay-Sachs disease. This test was proven reliable, as it statistically demonstrates low percentage of errors and false positives. The test historically started the determination of potential genetic diseases among offspring. This is essential in preventing diseases and eventually leading to close eradication of the disease among Ashkenazi Jews. Now, it is possible to identify whether couples are at risk in having a child afflicted with the disease (Kaback 255). These efforts of Kaback, together with his team, led to the mass screening of potential disorders among individuals. This program was carefully organized and on May of 1971, approximately 18, 000 adults with Ashkenazi Jewish descent volunteered to be screened for possible heterozygosity. The said screening proved efficient and accurate in determining populations which are potentially at risk. In addition, the screening lasted and from 1969 until 1998, a total of 48,864 heterozygotes were already screened (Kaback 256). Clinical Description The degree of severity of Tay-Sachs manifestation can vary depending on the type of disease. An autosomal recessive disease, Tay-Sachs can cause â€Å"paralysis, dementia, and early death to a chronic adult form† (Genes and Disease 23). These adults afflicted by Tay-Sachs typically manifest psychosis and even neural dysfunction (Genes and Disease 23). Other manifestations of this disease include blindness and deafness early in life. Babies born with Tay-Sachs disease may develop normally during their first 3-6 months, but would eventually deteriorate mentally. They experience delay in mental progression as they experience loss of motor abilities. By the end of their first 12 months, patients rapidly regress mentally and physically. They are exposed to complications in swallowing, as well as in chest, and lung functions (Hauser 2171). Symptoms of this disease include cherry-red macular spots (see Figure 1), or a highly pronounced macular fovea centralis, and an enlarged heart. Babies with this genetic disorder experience disabled motor skills as they could poorly manage to control their heads, fail to crawl, sit and develop visual attention. They also characteristically assume a position that resembles those of frogs. Babies, supposedly at the stage of rapid development, lose their ability to maintain focus and eye contact, when Tay-Sachs starts to manifest. They also exhibit declining environmental interactions while gradually becoming unresponsive. They also develop inattention towards external stimuli until they reach a state that otherwise described vegetative. Hyperacusis, seizure, and macrocephaly are typical of Tay-Sachs disease (Kasper et al. 2318; lysosomallearning. com). There are three forms of Tay-Sachs disease. This includes the classic infantile, the juvenile form, and the adult form. Infants afflicted with Tay-Sachs do not produce Hexosaminidase A, while adults with this disease produce minimal enzymatic levels. Babies born with this disease experience both paralysis and muscle atrophy by six months of age and do not survive longer than five years. Most common ages when children manifest juvenile Tay-Sachs disease are those from 2 to 10 years old. The symptoms of patients are comparable to those with classic infantile form, but with a slower process. They develop dysarthria or speech problems, dysphagia or swallowing complications, ataxia or imbalance, and even spasticity. Patients generally die by their 15th year of age. The effects of the adult version are relatively milder than the classic infantile form, which attributes to their late onset in life. These individuals are otherwise known to possess chronic Tay-Sachs disease. Those with the adult-onset Tay-Sachs disease usually manifest symptoms by their adolescent stage, but it is also possible that these appear during childhood. Unlike babies with Tay-Sachs disease, adults with this disease do not experience blindness or deafness. Although the motor abilities are not completely degenerated, these individuals continuously experience mental weaknesses, including comprehension and memory problems. But different cases present various severity, as some can exhibit â€Å"slurred speech, muscle weakness, muscle cramps, tremors, unsteady gait and sometimes mental illness† (marchofdimes. com). Persons afflicted vary in life expectancy and some may not even to demonstrate the disease. Doctors determining the presence of this disease in individuals must consider investigating the following. Erythrocyte content of both carriers and afflicted individuals are considerably lower concentrations of sphingomyelin. Also, using the enzyme assay, serum or other cell cultures without or with less activities of Hexosaminidase A are a significant consideration. If these tests demonstrate abnormalities, then a DNA analysis must immediately be conducted. This is highly beneficial in determining other members of the family that are heterozygotes for this disorder. This has important implications in child-bearing options of couples and in diagnosing the disease prior a child’s birth. MRI are also commonly used in searching for cerebellar atrophy while electromyelogram is also used in detecting denervation and reinnvervation in individuals with adult-onset of this disease (Tidy; Zaroff 2283). Pathogenesis The most essential organelle involved in Tay-Sachs disease is the lysosome. The biogenesis of this organelle is comprised of different steps synthesizing the following: lysosomal hydrolases, membrane constitutive proteins, and new membranes. The formation of lysosomes is initiated by the fusion of trans-golgi network and late endosomes. With the acidification of vesicles in progression, trans-Golgi network vesicles develop towards maturity. This process creates a gradient that promotes the facilitation of ligand and receptor dissociation. This is highly dependent on the pH levels of the system. Here, lysosomal hydrolases are also activated (Kasper 2318). Any form of interference or abnormalities in these steps of lysosomal biogenesis could result to enzymatic impairment and lead to lysosomal storage disorder. â€Å"Following leader sequence clipping, complex oligosaccharide modification occur during transit through the Golgi, including the mannose-6-phosphate modification of high-mannose oligosaccharide chains of many soluble lysosomal hydrolases† (Kasper 2318). Using various kinds of signals, the lysosomal integral or associated membrane proteins are sorted to the membrane or interior of the lysosome. Concurrently, other processes occur such as phosphorylation, sulfation, proteolytic processing, and macromolecular assembly of heteromers. These are all very crucial steps to ensure the normal functioning of enzymes. Defects of these processes could lead to multiple enzyme or protein deficiencies (Kasper 2318). These mentioned steps are all common for lysosomal storage diseases. But the final pathway is when particular macromolecules, under normal circumstances have high flux of these substrates, within tissues and cells accumulate. When enzymatic deficiency occurs, the most common and major cause are point mutations or genetic rearrangements at a locus that encodes a single lysosomal hydrolase (Kasper 2318). These consequently result in diseases that are passed on from one generation to another. An example of lysosomal storage disorder is the Tay-Sachs disease. This complication is considered an autosomal recessive disorder that is acquired through genetic inheritance. A lysosomal acid hydrolase, ? -N-Hexosaminidase A is a heterodimer composed of alpha and beta subunits. A point mutation occurring at the ? -chain subunit results in an enzymatic deficiency of ? -N-Hexosaminidase A (Myerowitz 3955). The disorders that arise from the mutation of the alpha subunit cause the dysfunction of ? -N-Hexosaminidase A activity. This also includes the abolition of the alpha and beta isozyme activities through the action of the remaining beta subunit (see Figure 2). Tay-Sachs disease is described as one of the earliest versions of human genetic sphingolipidoses where patients suffer from the accumulation of GM2-monosialoganglioside in neurons due to the mentioned ? -N-Hexosaminidase A deficiency (Ohno and Suzuki 18563). The comparison between a healthy neuron and a neuron affected by Tay-Sachs disease is illustrated in Figure 3. The abnormality of the ? -subunit can be attributed to the major deletion found at the 5 end of the gene coding for ? -N-Hexosaminidase A ? chain. It was also discovered that in the coding sequences of ? subunits in relatively mature stages, point mutations occur that consequently result to the synthesis of unique enzymes of GM2-gangliosidosis. In cases of Ashkenazi Jews, patients were observed to possess splicing defects located at the 5 end, where intron 12 is usually donated. This splicing complication was described by employing methods such as cloning, genomic sequencing, and identification of abnormal cDNAs (Ohno and Suzuki 18563). Tay-Sachs is actually a â€Å"group of disorders† (Myerowitz 3955) with varying degree of severity and biochemical parameters. Severity ranges from mild to fatal while the parameters include â€Å"residual enzyme activity, immunoprecipitable ? -chain polypeptide, and detectable ? -chain mRNA† (Myerowitz 3955). These mentioned variations are part of differential ? -chain genetic lesions. In the case of Ashkenazi Jews, this disease has a single clinical course that leads to early childhood death and same biochemical profiles. Scientists hypothesized that the severe form of this disease is caused by a single mutation (Myerowitz 3955). It has been established that Tay-Sachs is the result of accumulation of Ganglioside GM2 due to the cells inability to degrade these granular bodies. In the absence of GM2 activator protein, â€Å" the GalNAc and NeuAc in GM2 are refractory to hexosaminidase A and sialidase respectively† (Li et al. 10014). In the study, it was found that in analyzing the conformatino of these GM2, a rigid and compact structure of the oligosaccharide head group was revealed. This is concluded to be the factor responsible for the resistance of GM2 from degradation or enzymatic hydrolysis (Li et al. 10014). All these abnormal processes are primarily attributable to mutations that occur on chromosome 15. Mutations include insertions and deletions of different base pairs, splice site mutations, point mutations, and other forms. With every modification resulting from mutation processes result in the alteration of the protein or enzymatic product, which causes the inhibition of its function. One of the most commonly observed and noted mutations are those of the Ashkenazi Jews where four base pairs are inserted in exon 11. The result is the classic infantile Tay-Sachs disease that can also be found in other ethnicities (Ohno 18563). Etiology This disease is commonly passed on from carrier parents to their offspring. Children that possess both alleles for Tay-Sachs manifest and suffer from the disease. The human body is composed of 23 pairs of chromosomes, therefore 46 chromosomes in total. These chromosomes contain genetic instructions that always come in pairs, from both maternal and paternal inheritance. But when these genes experience alterations or any form of modification, a mutation occurs and the gene loses its normal functions. Since each individual has two chromosomes, those with only one copy of the dysfunctional gene will be able to continue to function correctly as the normal gene would compensate for the impairment of the other. But if an individual acquires two recessive alleles, the individual will manifest the symptoms characteristic of the disease (Branda et al. 174; www. dnadirect. com). In cases when both parents are heterozygous for the Tay-Sachs gene, there is a 25% probability of passing the disease to the offspring, while a 50% probability of bearing a carrier individual and a 25% chance of a phenotypically and genotypically normal child (see Figure 4). In situations when only one parent is a carrier, there are 0% chances of having an afflicted child. However, they still have a 50% risk of having an offspring carrying the gene for Tay-Sachs (Branda et al. 174; www. dnadirect. com). Epidemiology Tay-Sachs disease is one of the most renowned genetic disorders associated with a certain population. This is a metabolic disorder typically acquired through genetic inheritance and occurs most frequently among Ashkenazi Jews of Eastern Europe. However, the disease is not confined within this group as it is also found among French Canadians that inhabit the South-eastern portion of Quebec and among Cajuns that live in the South-western part of Louisiana (Genes and Disease 23). One of the causes that scientists propose on the emergence of this disease is founder effect. Founder effect is a potential cause for a high frequency allele within a population in isolation. This is the case if the allele selectively remains in neutrality and if it has identical copies of the original carrier that founded the subpopulation. This is also applicable in conditions where an allele simply arose by later mutating (Slatkin 282). In explaining the phenomenon of the occurrence of high frequency alleles, experts have always employed this founder effects hypothesis. Most disease associated alleles are likely to be non-neutral. However, even alleles with mild deleterious effects could gain high levels of frequency due to founder effects. Today, another explanation is widely accepted in the scientific community in accounting for Tay-Sachs disease. This is the heterozygote advantage. This hypothesis is basically supported by the fact that most disease associated with alleles result from sphingolipid storage dysfunction. This outcome is not commonly observed in the general population. These two hypotheses were highly acknowledged prior the 1990s. But until recently, the heterozygote advantage was questioned and the founder effect has gained a relatively greater acceptance. This is due to several research studies conducted that argued in favour of founder effects as the actual cause of lipid storage diseases in the Ashkenazi Jewish population. The heterozygote advantage is unlikely as some non-lipid storage diseases (NLSDs) are due to dominant instead of recessive alleles and that these NLSDs do not benefit from the presence of disease associated alleles (Slatkin 282). The study on the debate between genetic drift and selection were further investigated by Risch et al. (p. 812). It has been established that Ashkenazi Jews have higher tendencies to acquire lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs), and in this study, four were found to occur at high frequencies. It was suggested that this condition is a result of having natural selection, otherwise termed as carrier advantage, as an impetus. The researchers compared the LSDs and NLSDs in terms of their levels of mutations, allelic frequency distribution, and mutation coalescence dates. It was found that there were no differences in the distribution nor any regular distribuion patterns were observed between LSDs and NLSDs occurring in different geographic areas. But the scientists discovered a more interesting concentration of two particular Tay-Sachs mutations in central and eastern Europe. Such an observation is an indication that genetic drift or the founder effect is the driving force that affected the population. It is the primary determinant of the genetic mutations that occur in Ashkenazi Jews (Risch et al. 812). Treatment and Screening An effective treatment or cure is currently not available for Tay-Sachs disease. Due to this, scientists are exploring on various possibilities that would enable them to formulate the appropriate treatment and management of this disease. Through intensive research projects using therapeutic approaches and clinical trials, experts have discovered a potential cure. This is by employing enzyme replacement therapy in order to compensate for the deficiency of ? -N-Hexosaminidase A absent among afflicted infants and even among adult patients. But this proposal entails several complications as it can affect the brain neurons that receive protection from the blood-brain barrier. Other current studies include gene therapy, pharmacological chaperone therapy, and neural stem cell therapy. Another alternative research is conducted on stem cell transplantation employing the blood of umbilical cord, but all these mentioned potential cure are still under the process of scientific research (www. nstad. org). These stem cell research studies investigate the potential of transplanting bone marrow in treating classic Tay-Sachs disease. These stem cells are immature cells that can differentiate into any form of cell (see Figure 5). In this case, scientists are seeking to produce blood cells from these stem cells either from a bone marrow donor or umbilical cord blood. But this remains unsuccessful in causing the reversal of brain damage that is fatal for afflicted patients. Drug options are also being explores by medical experts, which includes the miglustat drug. This has the ability to cause fatty build up reduction in the brain cells of Tay-Sachs disease patients (Escolar et al. , 2; Bembi 278; marchofdimes. com). The enzyme replacement therapy proposal is basically applicable to most lysosomal storage disorders. The objective is to perform an enzymatic replacement, a procedure comparable to that of injecting insulin to diabetics. The problem in this procedure is that HEXA enzymes are relatively too large to penetrate the blood-brain barrier. This causes the development of blood vessel junctions in the brain, which leads to neuronal cell damage. Alternate pathways were also tested such as injecting the enzyme to the cerebrospinal fluid, but this treatment is still left ineffective (www. freepatentsonline. com). As mentioned in the historical background of this disease, screening for potential carriers is very essential in preventing the manifestation of Tay-Sachs. This is very vital for populations such as Ashkenazi Jews, French Canadians, Louisiana Cajuns, and even Pennsylvania Dutch. This procedure is recommended to be conducted prior conceiving an offspring. But even after the end of an individuals childbearing years, it is still important to be screened for ones status as a carrier as it would make a tremendous difference in the lives of immediate family and close relatives (www. nstad. org). Prenatal tests are currently available such as amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling. These tests determine the existence of the disease prior a childs birth. Typically conducted between the 15th and 20th week of pregnancy, women can choose amniocentesis where a needle is inserted to the mothers abdomen to obtain amniotic fluid samples. Fetal cells are contained within this fluid and therefore can be tested whether they possess ? -N-Hexosaminidase A. Another test usually conducted between the 10th and 12th weeks of pregnancy is CVS. This is done through the retrieval of placental cells either through tube insertion on the vagina or needle penetration through the maternal abdominal area. Again, the objective is to obtain fetal cells that would be tested for the presence of ? -N-Hexosaminidase A. If these tests reveal the absence of ? -N-Hexosaminidase A, the infant will eventually manifest the classic Tay-Sachs disease. These tests are currently being offered especially to couples who are positive for carrying the allele, and most often to those who resort to in vitro fertilization (www. marchofdimes. com). Conclusion One of the clinical considerations of this disease is that it is caused by an organelle dysfunction, particularly lysosomes. Most cells have a limited life span and therefore must be continuously replaced. Without the proper amount of lysosomal enzymes as typically attributable to a genetic disorder, the result is an abnormal accumulation of glycogen and lipids that could destroy the tissue. This case is demonstrated by Tay-Sachs disease, together with other disorders such as Gauchers disease and glycogen storage. Due to this accumulation, myelin sheaths are destroyed which would lead to the different clinical manifestations of Tay-Sachs disease. (Van de Graaff 370). The Tay-Sachs gene occurs one in every 30 Ashkenazi Jews, making almost 3% of this population as carrier of this disease. Due to lysosomal storage dysfunction, the individual becomes deficient of an enzyme called Hexosaminidase A, which codes for the metabolism of lipid molecules in cellular systems. This fatal neurodegenerative disease has an infantile form and manifests through symptoms such as macrocephaly, loss of motor skills, increased startle reaction, and a macular cherry red spot. Patients exhibiting ataxia and dementia, the juvenile-onset form of Tay-Sachs causes the death of afflicted individuals between ages 10 and 15. The adult onset of this disease is characterized by â€Å"clumsiness in childhood, progressive motor weakness in adolescence, and additional spinocerebellar, lower motor neuron symptoms, and dysarthria in adulthood† (Kasper 2318). Patients commonly demonstrate psychosis and their intelligence continuously declines. Bembi, B. â€Å"Substrate Reduction Therapy in the Infantile Form of Tay-Sachs Disease. † Neurology, 66 (2006): 278-280. Branda KJ, Tomczak J, Natowicz, MR. 2004. â€Å"Heterozygosity for Tay-Sachs and Sandhoff diseases in non-Jewish Americans with ancestry from Ireland, Great Britain, or Italy. † Genet Test 8 (2004):174-180 Desnick, R. , and Kaback, M. Tay-Sachs Disease. Ed. USA: Academic Press, 2001. â€Å"Tay Sachs Disease. † 29 January 2008 dnadirect. com/patients/tests/ashkenazi/tay_sachs. jsp. Escolar, Maria L. , Michele D. Poe, James M. Provenzale, Karen C. , Richards, M. D. , June Allison, R. N. , Susan Wood, P. N. P. , David A. Wenger, Daniel Pietryga, Donna Wall, Martin Champagne, Richard Morse, William Krivit and Joanne Kurtzberg, M. D. â€Å"Transplantation of Umbilical-Cord Blood in Babies with Infantile Krabbes Disease. † The New England Journal of Medicine, 352 (2005):2069-2081. â€Å"Compositions and method for treating lysosomal storage disease. † 30 January 2008 freepatentsonline. com/6066626. html â€Å"Cord Blood. † 4 February 2008 cordbloodusa. org/articles-a1-Cord_Blood. htm. â€Å"Genes and Disease. † Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US), NCBI. 29 January 2008 ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/books/bv. fcgi? rid=gnd. section. 238. Hauser SL, Longo DL, Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. Ed. 14th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1998; p. 2171. Kasper, D. L. , A. S. Fauci, D. L. Longo, E. Baraunwald, S. Hauser, S. L . Jameson, Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine 16th Ed. USA: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2005. Li, Y. , S. Li, , A. Hasegawa, H. Ishida, M. Kiso, A. Bernardi, P. Brocca, L. Raimondi, and S. Sonnino. â€Å"Structural basis for the resistance of Tay-Sachs Ganglioside GM2 to enzymatic degradation. † The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 274:10014-10018, 1999. Lowden, J. A. â€Å"Role of the physician in screening for carriers of Tay-Sachs disease. † CMA Journal 119 (1978):575-585. â€Å"Tay-Sachs Disease. † 29 January 2008 marchofdimes. com/professionals/14332_1227. asp. Myerowitz, R. â€Å"Splice junction mutation in some Ashkenzi Jews with Tay-Sachs disease. † Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 85 (1998):3955-3959. â€Å"National Tay-Sachs and Allied Diseases Association. † 29 January 2008 ntsad. org/. National Eye Institute. 4 February 2008 nei. nih. gov/resources/eyegene/redeye. jpg Society for Neuroscience. 4 February 2008 sfn. org/SiteObjects/published/0000BDF20016F63800 FD712C3158BA55/0000BDF200000

Pigs Pork and Animal Rights - What is Wrong with Eating Pork

Pigs Pork and Animal Rights - What is Wrong with Eating Pork Approximately 100 million pigs are killed for food each year in the United States, but some people choose not to eat pork for a variety of reasons, including concerns about animals rights, the welfare of the pigs, the effects on the environment, and their own health. Pigs and Animal Rights A belief in animal rights is a belief that pigs and other sentient beings have a right to be free of human use and exploitation. Breeding, raising, killing and eating a pig violates that pigs right to be free, regardless of how well the pig is treated. While the public is becoming more aware of factory farming and demanding humanely raised and slaughtered meat, animal rights activists believe that there is no such thing as humane slaughter. From an animal rights perspective, the only solution to factory farming is veganism. Pigs and Animal Welfare Those who believe in animal welfare believe that humans can ethically use animals for our own purposes as long as the animals are treated well while they are alive and during slaughter. For factory farmed pigs, there is little argument that the pigs are treated well. Factory farming began in the 1960s, when scientists realized that agriculture was going to have to become much more efficient to feed an exploding human population. Instead of small farms raising pigs outdoors in pastures, larger farms started raising them in extreme confinement, indoors. As the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency explains: There has also been a significant change in how and where hogs are produced in the U.S. over the past 50 years. Low consumer prices, and therefore low producer prices, have resulted in larger, more efficient operations, with many smaller farms no longer able to produce pigs profitably. Pigs are cruelly abused on factory farms from the time they are little piglets. Piglets routinely have their teeth clipped, have their tails cut off and are castrated without anesthesia. After weaning, the piglets are put in crowded pens with slotted floors for the manure to fall through, into a manure pit. In these pens, they each typically have only three square feet of room. When they become too large, they are moved to new pens, also with slotted floors, where they have eight square feet of space. Because of crowding, the spread of disease is a constant problem and the entire herd of animals is given antibiotics as a precaution. When they reach their slaughter weight of 250-275 pounds, at around five to six months of age, most are sent off to slaughter while a small number of females become breeding sows. After being impregnated, sometimes by a boar and sometimes artificially, breeding sows are then confined in gestation stalls that are so tiny, the animals cannot even turn around. Gestation stalls are considered so cruel, they have been banned in several countries and in several U.S. states, but are still legal in most states. When the breeding sows fertility drops off, usually after five or six litters, she is sent off to slaughter. These practices are not only routine but legal. No federal law governs the raising of farmed animals. The federal Humane Slaughter Act applies only to slaughter practices, while the federal Animal Welfare Act explicitly exempts animals on farms. State animal welfare statutes exempt animals raised for food and/or practices that are routine in the industry. While some may call for more humane treatment of the pigs, allowing the pigs to roam on pastures would make animal agriculture even more inefficient, requiring even more resources. Pork and the Environment Animal agriculture is inefficient because it takes so much more resources to grow crops to feed to pigs than it would be to grow crops to feed to people directly. It takes about six pounds of feed to produce a pound of pork. Growing those extra crops requires additional land, fuel, water, fertilizer, pesticides, seeds, labor and other resources. The extra agriculture will also create more pollution, such as pesticide and fertilizer runoff and fuel emissions, not to mention the methane that the animals produce. Captain Paul Watson of Sea Shepherd Conservation Society calls domestic pigs, the world’s largest aquatic predator, because they eat more fish than all the sharks in the world combined. We’re just pulling fish out of the ocean to convert it into fish meal for the raising of livestock, for pigs primarily. Pigs also produce a lot of manure, and factory farms have come up with elaborate systems for storing solid or liquid manure until it can be used as fertilizer. However, these manure pits or lagoons are environmental disasters waiting to happen. Methane sometimes becomes trapped under a layer of foam in a manure pit and explodes. Manure pits can also overflow or can become flooded, polluting the groundwater, streams, lakes and drinking water. Pork and Human Health The benefits of a low-fat, whole foods vegan diet have been proven, including lower incidences of heart disease, cancer and diabetes. The American Dietetic Association supports a vegan diet: It is the position of the American Dietetic Association that appropriately planned vegetarian diets, including total vegetarian or vegan diets, are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases. Because pigs are now bred to be leaner, pork is not as unhealthy as it once was, but is no health food. Because they are high in saturated fats, the Harvard School of Public Health recommends avoiding red meats, including beef, pork and lamb. Aside from the risks of eating pork, supporting the pork industry means supporting an industry that endangers the public health and not just the health of people who choose to eat pork. Because the pigs are constantly given antibiotics as a preventive measure, the industry fosters the rise and spread of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Similarly, the pork industry spreads swine flu, or H1N1, because the virus mutates so quickly and spreads quickly among closely-confined animals as well as to farm workers. The environmental issues also mean that pig farms endanger their neighbors health with manure and disease.

Pigs Pork and Animal Rights - What is Wrong with Eating Pork

Pigs Pork and Animal Rights - What is Wrong with Eating Pork Approximately 100 million pigs are killed for food each year in the United States, but some people choose not to eat pork for a variety of reasons, including concerns about animals rights, the welfare of the pigs, the effects on the environment, and their own health. Pigs and Animal Rights A belief in animal rights is a belief that pigs and other sentient beings have a right to be free of human use and exploitation. Breeding, raising, killing and eating a pig violates that pigs right to be free, regardless of how well the pig is treated. While the public is becoming more aware of factory farming and demanding humanely raised and slaughtered meat, animal rights activists believe that there is no such thing as humane slaughter. From an animal rights perspective, the only solution to factory farming is veganism. Pigs and Animal Welfare Those who believe in animal welfare believe that humans can ethically use animals for our own purposes as long as the animals are treated well while they are alive and during slaughter. For factory farmed pigs, there is little argument that the pigs are treated well. Factory farming began in the 1960s, when scientists realized that agriculture was going to have to become much more efficient to feed an exploding human population. Instead of small farms raising pigs outdoors in pastures, larger farms started raising them in extreme confinement, indoors. As the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency explains: There has also been a significant change in how and where hogs are produced in the U.S. over the past 50 years. Low consumer prices, and therefore low producer prices, have resulted in larger, more efficient operations, with many smaller farms no longer able to produce pigs profitably. Pigs are cruelly abused on factory farms from the time they are little piglets. Piglets routinely have their teeth clipped, have their tails cut off and are castrated without anesthesia. After weaning, the piglets are put in crowded pens with slotted floors for the manure to fall through, into a manure pit. In these pens, they each typically have only three square feet of room. When they become too large, they are moved to new pens, also with slotted floors, where they have eight square feet of space. Because of crowding, the spread of disease is a constant problem and the entire herd of animals is given antibiotics as a precaution. When they reach their slaughter weight of 250-275 pounds, at around five to six months of age, most are sent off to slaughter while a small number of females become breeding sows. After being impregnated, sometimes by a boar and sometimes artificially, breeding sows are then confined in gestation stalls that are so tiny, the animals cannot even turn around. Gestation stalls are considered so cruel, they have been banned in several countries and in several U.S. states, but are still legal in most states. When the breeding sows fertility drops off, usually after five or six litters, she is sent off to slaughter. These practices are not only routine but legal. No federal law governs the raising of farmed animals. The federal Humane Slaughter Act applies only to slaughter practices, while the federal Animal Welfare Act explicitly exempts animals on farms. State animal welfare statutes exempt animals raised for food and/or practices that are routine in the industry. While some may call for more humane treatment of the pigs, allowing the pigs to roam on pastures would make animal agriculture even more inefficient, requiring even more resources. Pork and the Environment Animal agriculture is inefficient because it takes so much more resources to grow crops to feed to pigs than it would be to grow crops to feed to people directly. It takes about six pounds of feed to produce a pound of pork. Growing those extra crops requires additional land, fuel, water, fertilizer, pesticides, seeds, labor and other resources. The extra agriculture will also create more pollution, such as pesticide and fertilizer runoff and fuel emissions, not to mention the methane that the animals produce. Captain Paul Watson of Sea Shepherd Conservation Society calls domestic pigs, the world’s largest aquatic predator, because they eat more fish than all the sharks in the world combined. We’re just pulling fish out of the ocean to convert it into fish meal for the raising of livestock, for pigs primarily. Pigs also produce a lot of manure, and factory farms have come up with elaborate systems for storing solid or liquid manure until it can be used as fertilizer. However, these manure pits or lagoons are environmental disasters waiting to happen. Methane sometimes becomes trapped under a layer of foam in a manure pit and explodes. Manure pits can also overflow or can become flooded, polluting the groundwater, streams, lakes and drinking water. Pork and Human Health The benefits of a low-fat, whole foods vegan diet have been proven, including lower incidences of heart disease, cancer and diabetes. The American Dietetic Association supports a vegan diet: It is the position of the American Dietetic Association that appropriately planned vegetarian diets, including total vegetarian or vegan diets, are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases. Because pigs are now bred to be leaner, pork is not as unhealthy as it once was, but is no health food. Because they are high in saturated fats, the Harvard School of Public Health recommends avoiding red meats, including beef, pork and lamb. Aside from the risks of eating pork, supporting the pork industry means supporting an industry that endangers the public health and not just the health of people who choose to eat pork. Because the pigs are constantly given antibiotics as a preventive measure, the industry fosters the rise and spread of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Similarly, the pork industry spreads swine flu, or H1N1, because the virus mutates so quickly and spreads quickly among closely-confined animals as well as to farm workers. The environmental issues also mean that pig farms endanger their neighbors health with manure and disease.

Employment Discrimination- Legal research term project Paper

Employment Discrimination- Legal term project - Research Paper Example It is essential to understand the content of employment laws that prohibit discrimination because inadequately following these laws may cost a company vast resources as a result of litigation if that company is not careful to prevent discriminatory practices in its hiring and employment. Employment discrimination is discrimination in the process of hiring, promoting, assigning, terminating, or compensating employees, which includes any kind of harassment or on-the-job persecution.2 Most often, this kind of discrimination is defined in terms of an impact on members of a particular class or category of people, such as ethnicity, gender, or disability. Measuring discrimination relative to the effect on members of protected classes is necessary because without membership in particular classes of people, there would be no basis for people to discriminate or hold prejudices against others. Clearly, discrimination can either occur on an explicit or implicit level, which corresponds to the d ifference between intentional and unintentional discrimination. In the case of unintentional, or implicit, discrimination, there may be subconscious biases or prejudices that a hiring manager may have against people of a certain group (e.g. that physically handicapped people are below average in intelligence) can cause a disparate impact on that group, simply through the manager’s hiring decisions.3 This impact may extend past the hiring process and into the areas of wage discrimination and workplace retaliation for various reasons. There are Constitutional limits on employment discrimination such as the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments, as well as a number of Federal laws. Although Constitutional dictates are universal, they apply only to employment in government and not in the private workplace. Among the most important pieces of Federal legislation against employment discrimination is Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin regarding terms, conditions, and privileges of employment. This coincided with the granting of civil rights to minorities in the United States in other areas of public life not expressly dealing with employment. One year prior to the CRA, the Equal Pay Act (EPA) of 1963 banned compensation for employees that differs based solely on sex and not on any other factor relative to the job. While it does not exclude other discriminatory practices in hiring, one of the EPA’s conditions is that workers who perform equal work in jobs requiring â€Å"equal skill, effort, and responsibility and performed under similar working conditions† should be provided equal pay.4 Although the pay differential between the sexes has not evened out completely since 1963, the law has been successful in paring much of the deficit. Employment